History

Prehistoric Migration

Burma's prehistory begins with the migration of three groups into the country: the first were Mons from what is now Cambodia, then came Mongol Burmans from the eastern Himalayas and later came Thai tribes from northern Thailand. Burma was an independent Buddhist kingdom from the 11th to the 13th centuries, unified by Burman dynasties three times during the past millennium.

Pagan Dynasty 1044-1287

The first such unification came with the foundation of the Pagan Dynasty in 1044, considered the "Golden Age" in Burmese history, thought and architecture. During this period, Theravada Buddhism first made its appearance in Burma, and the Pagan kings built a massive city with thousands of pagodas and monasteries along the Irrawaddy River. The Pagan Dynasty lasted until 1287 when a Mongol invasion destroyed the city. Ethnic Shan rulers, who established a political centre at Ava, filled the ensuing political vacuum for a short time.

Toungoo Dynasty 1486-1752

In 1486, the Toungoo Dynasty succeeded again in unifying a large, multi-ethnic kingdom under Burman rule. This dynasty left little cultural legacy, but expanded the kingdom through conquest of the Shans. Internal power struggles and the cost of protracted warfare led to the eventual decline of the Toungoo in 1752.

Konbaung Dynasty 1752-1824

The final Burman royal dynasty, the Konbaung Dynasty, was established in 1752 under the rule of King Alaungpaya. Like the Toungoo Kings, the Konbaung rulers focused on warfare and conquest. Wars were fought with the ethnic Mons and Arkanese, and with the Siamese. The Burmese sacked the Siamese capital of Ayuthaya in 1767, forcing the Siamese to move their capital to Bangkok. This dynasty came to an end when the British took over Burma in 1824.

British Colonisation 1824-1948

The British began their conquest of Burma in 1824, expanding their holdings after each of three devastating wars in 1824, 1852 and 1883. At the end of the third war in 1885 the British gained complete control of Burma, annexing it to India as a province of British India to be a puppet state for Britain. Burma remained under British colonial rule until the attainment of Burmese independence in 1948. Indians and Chinese arrived with the British to further complicate the ethnic mix.

Independence Movement

By the end of the nineteenth century, the Burmese independence movement gathered strength and momentum. Similar to the experience of many other colonial countries at the time, a series of revolts protested British occupation. Aung San, a young student at Rangoon University and father of current democracy movement leader Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, led these protests of Burmese nationalists.

Britain Driven Out of Burma

At the outbreak of World War II, Burmese generals including Aung San joined the Japanese forces in driving out the British, as the Japanese attempted to enlist Burman political support. After the war, the Burmese with General Aung San at the helm demanded complete political and economic independence from Britain, although a resistance movement soon sprang up.

Independence Achieved

A constitution was completed in 1947 and Aung San signed a treaty in London with the British government, establishing the road to Burma's ultimate independence. On 4 January 1948 Burma officially gained independence and the Union of Burma was born; however, the country almost immediately began to disintegrate as hill tribes, communists, Muslims and Mons all revolted. Tragically, Aung San never experienced the independence of Burma, for he was assassinated on 19 July 1947 along with most of his cabinet before the constitution was put into effect.

Constitutional Period 1948-1962

From 1948 to 1962, Burma suffered widespread conflict and internal struggle during this weak constitutional period. Constitutional disputes and persistent division among political and social groups contributed to the weakness of the democratic government's hold on power. Almost immediately after independence, there was an uprising of communists principally by the People's Volunteer Organization (PVO), as well as other ethnic groups. By 1951, the unrest was under control and the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) controlled the government through elections until 1958 when the party split. In 1958, Prime Minister U Nu invited the military in temporarily to restore political order, and they stepped down after 18 months. As a result, General Ne Win was installed as caretaker of the government until fresh elections in 1960 returning the AFPFL to power.

Military Coup 1962

In March 1962, General Ne Win, as head of the Revolutionary Council (RC), led a military coup and overthrew the government to establish a repressive, military one-party state that ruthlessly stamped out democracy. He suspended the constitution and parliament, and in July 1962, the Burma Socialist Program Party (BSPP) was formed and became the country's only legal party.

Failed Economic Policy

General Ne Win transferred ownership of all private enterprises and key economic sectors to the ruling regime, including industry, banking, education and communications systems. He isolated Burma from the international community and abolished free trade, adopting a new socio-economic plan: the Burmese Way to Socialism. These economic priorities had devastating effects on the country's economy and business climate. Failed attempts to control economic activity transformed resource-rich Burma from one of Asia's most prosperous countries in the 1950s to one of the poorest in the 1990s. In 1987, after nearly three decades of isolation, Burma was given the Least Developed Country status by the United Nations (UN).

Burma or Myanmar?

The military junta in Burma has made a long list of geographic name changes to the country. Since 1989, the regime has promoted Myanmar as a conventional name for the state, a derivative of the Burmese short-form name Myanma Naingngandaw. The junta decided the old name of Burma implied dominance of the culture and traditions practised by the Burman ethnic group, yet the Burmese are just one of the many ethnic groups in the country. The National League for Democracy (NLD), Burma's democratically elected parliament forbidden by the regime from taking office, does not use the name change and has asked that the country is called Burma until real political change and democracy begin. Due to unyielding support for the democratically elected leaders, many other national governments did not adopt the new name of Myanmar. In this Resource Pack, the country is referred to as Burma and not Myanmar, but use both names when researching topic issues, since each source makes its own decision as to what name to use.

Questions

1. What is colonialism, what effects did it have on both the occupying colonial power and the colony itself in the Burma case and others, and how might the world be different today without a history of colonialism?

2. What is the Least Developed Country status used by the United Nations (UN), and why was it given to Burma in 1987?

3. What are a military coup and a military one-party state, why did General Ne Win lead a military coup in 1962 and establish a military one-party state and how might Burma's history up to the present be different if he did not?

4. Why did ethnic groups migrate to Burma during its prehistory?

5. Why did many of the Burman dynasty rulers focus on warfare and conquest, what effects did this have and how might Burma's history up to the present have been different if they did not?

6. How and why did Britain attempt to gain colonial control of Burma, why did they succeed in achieving it and how might Burma's history up to the present have been different if they did not?

7. Why did the Burmese independence movement begin?

8. Why did a resistance movement spring up in order to counter the independence movement, and why did some groups in Burma revolt upon the attainment of independence?

9. Why did the Japanese assist the Burmese in driving out the British during World War II, and how might events have been different if they did not?

10. How and why did Burma finally attain independence in 1948, and how might Burma's history up to the present be different if they did not?

11. Why was Aung San assassinated along with most of his cabinet, and what might have happened if they were not?

12. Why was the democratic government so weak during the constitutional period of 1948 to 1962, what factors could have strengthened it and how might Burma's history up to the present be different if it succeeded?

13. Why did General Ne Win adopt the harmful political and economic policies he did upon gaining control of Burma, what were the effects on the country and what might have been the results of more developmental policies?

Activities

1. Create a poster map outlining where the migrating ethnic groups came from and where they settled in Burma.

2. Complete an assignment on British colonialism in Burma. Examine the effects it had on both the occupying colonial power and the colony itself in the Burma case and others. Examine the colonial polices Britain implemented and the effects still evident in the country today. Devise alternative policies that might have been more developmental for Burma. Devise counterfactual scenarios for how both Burma and the world might be different today without a history of colonialism. Compare and contrast Burma's colonial experience with another country or your own country's experience, as a coloniser or a colony.

3. Compare and contrast the Burmese independence movement with that of another colony. Analyse tactics, demands, political organisation, leadership, participants, opposition, political climate, successes and failures. Devise counterfactual scenarios for how Burma's history up to the present might be different if the independence movement failed. Consider including the independence movement of your own country.

4. Complete an assignment on the background of the Least Developed Country status used by the United Nations (UN), and why it was given to Burma in 1987.

5. Complete an assignment on the ethnic groups that migrated to Burma during its prehistory.

6. Complete an assignment on the Pagan Dynasty, Toungoo Dynasty or Konbaung Dynasty. Examine the warfare and conquest focus of the dynasty rulers and the effects, and devise more peaceful and developmental policies and their possible results. Devise counterfactual scenarios for how Burma's history up to the present might have been different under alternative policies in these early days.

7. Complete an assignment on Burmese culture in the past and present. Study the art, music, drama, film, architecture, literature, poetry, philosophy, food and clothing. Share findings during a Burmese cultural celebration in class.

8. Complete an assignment on the three devastating wars in 1824, 1852 and 1883 enabling Britain to gain control of Burma. Examine what factors led to British victory, and devise counterfactual scenarios for different outcomes of the wars and aftermath. Examine how might Burma's history up to the present have been different if the British lost the wars.

9. Complete an assignment on Japanese assistance to Burma in driving the British out during World War II. Examine the forms this assistance took and the Japanese motivations behind it. Devise counterfactual scenarios for how events might have been different if they did not offer such assistance to Burma.

10. Organise classroom discussion and debate representing both sides of the independence movement in Burma.

11. Give a speech presentation outlining the arguments and demands of the Burmese independence movement.

12. Complete an assignment on the resistance movement that sprang up in order to counter the independence movement, and the revolt staged by some groups upon the attainment of independence. Analyse tactics, demands, political organisation, leadership, participants, opposition, political climate, successes and failures. Devise counterfactual scenarios for how Burma's history up to the present might be different if the resistance movement succeeded.

13. Complete an assignment on the lives of Aung San and Daw Aung San Suu Kyi. Examine why Aung San was assassinated along with most of his cabinet in 1947, and devise counterfactual scenarios for what might have happened if they were not.

14. Complete an assignment on the weaknesses and problems of the democratic government during the constitutional period of 1948 to 1962. Examine the factors contributing to the problems, and devise policies for the successful resolution of these problems. Devise counterfactual scenarios for how Burma's history up to the present might be different if the democratic government succeeded.

15. Complete an assignment on early political parties in Burma such as the People's Volunteer Organisation (PVO), Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL), Revolutionary Council (RC) and Burma Socialist Program Party (BSPP). Focus on their history, organisation, leadership, constituents and policies. Compare and contrast the parties with those of your own country.

16. Complete an assignment on the life, leadership and policies of General Ne Win, leader of the 1962 military coup.

17. Complete an assignment on the military coup that overthrew the government of 1962 to establish a military one-party state. Examine the factors leading to success of the coup and devise counterfactual scenarios for how Burma's history up to the present might be different if the coup failed.

18. Complete an assignment on the harmful political and economic policies implemented by General Ne Win upon gaining control of Burma, and the effects on the country. Devise more developmental policies and describe their possible outcomes. Devise counterfactual scenarios for how Burma's history up to the present might be different with implementation of more successful political and economic policies.

Web Sites

For further information on the history of Burma, please visit our Links Page.

© Union Aid Abroad - APHEDA 2003.
Site proudly produced by Social Change Online

Last Modified: Sunday, 22-Apr-2007 16:17:30 EST
This page: http://apheda.org.au/campaigns/burma_schools_kit/resources/1074471555_17416.html